Poverty And Its Effects On African Nation - 1353 Words

Poverty in Africa has strike the people living there extremely horrible. Africa is the second largest continent in the world. It holds about 1.1 million people, which is 15% of the world’s population. Poverty is about have not enough money to meet basic needs of living which includes food, clothing, and shelter. Being that Africa has a lack of the materials for a humans needs to have a role in society. Although over about 500 billion dollars is sent directly aid the African nation the money is being misused. A large percentage of the money that is sent is used to invest in weapons. This is caused by totalitarian regimes. Having large debts result in little to no money being used for social service, such as education, pensions or medical care. The African nation is pushing for debt relief, because they are unable to maintain payments. This problem does not affect other nations as much like Nigeria but it does take a toll on the smaller nations and the large debtor nations. Ther e are large amounts money being used in Africa for developments of mega projects. Ghana is the richest country in Africa, it obtained it independent after a few years later they had no foreign reserve. And which turned out to be a big waste. Africa has cheap labor available which has encourage inefficient agriculture and industrial practice that left the impoverished. The Republic of Nigeria population is more than 160 million, which is the largest in Africa and also a fast growingShow MoreRelatedThe University Of Texas Of The Permian Basin Essay1002 Words   |  5 Pages Global Poverty Naraly Rodriguez Dr. Davor Jedlicka Introduction to Sociology Fall B 2016 The University of Texas of the Permian Basin Essay Topic #3: Global Poverty â€Æ' Being poor can mean something to one individual compared to another. Whether it is not having clean water to drink or not being able to afford a new laptop. Poverty is very broad, without a single definition. Africa has the majority of the poorest countries in the world. With that being said, the overall African income levelsRead MoreHow Hiv / Aids Impacted A Nation1559 Words   |  7 Pagesburdened with health costs, and the overall demographic and future of Africa is changing as the youth are either contracting the virus or not able to attend school, hampering their employment options in the future. A nation specific micro level example of how HIV/AIDS impacts a nation was a study that was conducted in South Africa that determined the factual negative impact on their economy. They found these conclusions due to the HIV/AIDS disease: a lower labour force, lower productivity, a costRead More Poverty in Africa Essay example1470 Words   |  6 PagesAfrican nations regularly fall to the bottom of any list measuring economic activity, such as per capita income or per capita GDP, despite a wealth of natural resources. The bottom 25 spots of the United Nations (UN) quality of life index ar e regularly filled by African nations. In 2006, 34 of the 50 nations on the UN list of least developed countries are in Africa. In many nations, the per capita income is often less than $200 U.S. per year, with the vast majority of the population living on muchRead MoreDecline Of World Cotton Prices On Poverty1041 Words   |  5 Pagesworld cotton prices effects on poverty in West African cotton exporting countries rural poverty. Introduction Over 2001-2002, world cotton prices fell by almost 40% as a response to government subsidies in market-dominators Europe, China and the United States, a trend towards using synthetic fibres, and economic downturn decreasing the demand for garments. This paper will explain the price transmission between world cotton prices to the domestic prices in the West African ‘Cotton Four’ (‘C4’)Read MoreThe Need for Development in the African Continent Essay1550 Words   |  7 Pagescolonial era, the African continent has experienced numerous hardships on the pathway to economic and human development. High levels of poverty, disease, and inequality coupled with low levels of human development, education, and infrastructure has long gripped the continent and has stifled growth efforts (Gorton). An example of this extreme poverty lies in the African country of Uganda, where nearly 80% of its citizens could not afford food in 2012 (â€Å"Many in Developing Nations Struggle to AffordRead MoreTaking a Look at the China-Africa Relation1563 Words   |  6 PagesThere are many views on the importance of internal and external factors on economic development. From these conflicting views emerge theories on the effect of aid, investment and trade on economic growth––which, in current literature, suggests an ambiguous result. On the issue of aid, Pronk (2001) pointed out that aid can be seen as a catalyst rather than a primer mover, in the sense that aid is not a cause of development but a push or support to development. In the China-Africa relation, the roleRead MoreTourism in East Africa681 Words   |  3 Pagesbound as a community through a political treaty that came into effect on the 7th of July 2000 which ratified the establishment of the East African Community (Eac.int, 2014). Tourism receipts in developing countries can amount to more than 20 percent of the total value of exports which makes it a very significant pillar for these economies (Ondicho,2000,pp-49-70). Like all developing countries, the East African Community (EAC) member nations are dependent on the export of primary commodities whose pricesRead MoreThe Downfall Of The Black Experience1559 Words   |  7 Pagesto the suffering of the African American experience from the internal problems in African Americans communities; however, they neglect the external social constraints that African Americans have faces in America. African Americans have suffered oppression through social institution through factors such as Segregation, Racial Crimination, and Mass incarnation. The constraint of segregation was a way of social, political, and economical control over African Americans. African Americans are usually aRead MoreAfric The Cradle Of Mankind1571 Words   |  7 Pagesunderdeveloped, insubstanti al governance, and poor human progression which negatively affects continental growth and poverty reduction. These issues that Africa face cripples growth, political prosperity and economic independence. AFRICOM represents a fresh start for African nations to trade globally and provides military protection for these nations. In conclusion, Africa is a crippled nation unable to live independently and ineffective with foreign aid. Historically, Africa was called the CradleRead MoreWhy Is The Perception Of Africa Limited For Violence And Poverty?1490 Words   |  6 Pages A land tarnished by misfortune and poverty seems to be a general consensus of how Africa is depicted as a continent. Today, I challenge you to disregard all that you have been told about Africa and understand that it s rich culture and resources have been in place far before most civilizations in the Western Hemisphere. Most citizens in developed countries see starving children who suffer in Africa, pleading for donations, and associate the images they see with helplessness and draw an assumption

The HIV-AIDS Epidemic in Africa - 631 Words

HIV/AIDS is a significant public health concern and a leading cause of death in many parts of Africa. Although Africa is home to about approximately 15 percent of the worlds population, the same region is the worlds epicenter of HIV/AIDS. The numbers are overwhelming as adult HIV occurrence is 1.2 percent around the world but it is approximately 9.0 percent in sub-Saharan Africa. UNAIDS (The Joint United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS) estimated that at the end of the year 2001, there were 39.8 million people living with HIV/AIDS, 28.5 million of them from sub-Saharan African alone. Another 4.9 million adults and children were newly infected with HIV/AIDS in the year 2001, 3.5 million of them from sub-Saharan Africa. An estimated 3 million people died from AIDS-related causes in 2001 and of these deaths, 2.2 million were among sub-Saharan Africans. Sub-Saharan Africa alone accounts for an assessed 71.3 percent of all individuals living with HIV/AIDS and approximately 70 percent of all t otal AIDS deaths in the year 2011 alone (AVERT). HIV is a relevant topic because unmanageable financial and coordination burdens have been forced upon the health systems (Beaubien). Some countries in Sub-Saharan Africa have seen success in curbing the rate of AIDS previously. Uganda had a 26% rate of HIV/AIDS infection in 1986, and in 1987, Ugandan president Yoweri Museveni introduced a five-year government-led plan to reduce the rate (AVERT). The plan was defined by an approach toShow MoreRelatedShould The Hiv / Aids Epidemic?918 Words   |  4 PagesShould the HIV/AIDs epidemic in Africa be described as a feminist issue? With higher transmission rates concentrated among African women, and the vast majority of new mother-child transmissions occurring within African countries, HIV seemingly fits into the scope of feminist concerns. As described in Oppong and Kalipeni’s contribution to Kalipeni, et.al.’s HIV AIDS in African: Beyond Epidemiology, the consistent classi fying of the HIV/AIDS epidemic as being the direct result of distinct AfricanRead MoreHiv / Aids And Aids1356 Words   |  6 PagesJust about two decades ago, HIV/AIDS pandemic was the only thing that is mentioned in social media (Gus â€Å"Introduction to HIV/AIDS†). Proved to be originally from Sub Saharan Africa (S.S Africa) region, HIV/AIDS has spread throughout not only the S.S. Africa, but it eventually becomes the global disaster in the late 20th century (Gus). HIV/AIDS has gained attention from the media when the death many patients by the new emerging disease is reported in Europe and US (Satpathy 27). However, these casesRead MoreThe Epidemic Of Botswana, South Africa Essay1282 Words   |  6 PagesSouth are facing an epidemic that has gone completely ignored by their very own government. Instead of proposing policies directed towards reducing the amount of HIV/AIDS cases that continue to rise each year, they have chosen to implement failed policies or none at all . Countries that have attempted to enact government policy to try to decrease the spread of the epidemic has ultimately failed in a broad sense. The epidemic is known as the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) and the virus HumanRead MoreHiv / Aids : Hiv And Aids1484 Words   |  6 Pagesof South Africa, problems regarding the overall well-being of the country have arisen. One current issue South Africa is currently facing is HIV/AIDS. The disease has been plaguing South Africa as well as other countries throughout the continent. The initialism HIV stands for human immunodeficiency virus. This disease attacks and destroys the infection-fighting CD4 cells of the immune system. Loss of these cells makes it difficult for the body to fight infections. Without treatment, HIV can graduallyRead MoreAids in Africa Essay 211127 Words   |  5 PagesAfricas AIDS Epidemic Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) has become an epidemic for many underdeveloped regions. Although it does exist in the developed nations, it is more prevalent in places like South America, Asia, the island countries and most heavily of all Africa. There are many aspects to the problem of AIDS in Africa. Public health departments lack the resources to treat patients properly and to control the epidemic through education. Thirty-three million people have AIDS in theRead MoreSpread Of Hiv / Aids1574 Words   |  7 PagesThe Spread of HIV/AIDs in Sub-Saharan Africa Sub-Saharan Africa has been singled out as having the most serious HIV epidemic in the world. There is need to curb the spread of HIV in the continent by leveraging the knowledge and skills necessary to understand the factors responsible for the spread of the disease. This paper attempts to investigate the risk factors involved in the spread of HIV and how to reduce HIV prevalence regardless of these risks factors. The paper then goes a step further andRead MoreHiv / Aids : A Huge Complication Around The World1562 Words   |  7 PagesHIV/AIDS in Russia versus South Africa HIV/AIDS is becoming a huge complication around the world. More and more countries that are not commonly known to have an issue with AIDS/HIV are developing epidemics. It is common knowledge that South Africa struggles with an HIV/AIDS epidemic, but a lesser known country affected would be Russia. The epidemic spread in Russia because of drug users, prostitutes, and cultural shame. It spread in South Africa because of African men’s refusal to use condoms andRead MoreSocial Services During Sub Saharan Africa951 Words   |  4 PagesSocial Services Provided in Sub-Saharan Africa have had a Positive Impact on People Infected and Affected by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus Summary Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a disease that has evolved over time into an epidemic. Sub-Saharan Africa is the region of the world with the highest population of infected individuals and some of the lowest access to resources needed provide preventative education, treatment, and support for the disease. This study examines five studies conductedRead MoreHiv / Aids : A Devastating Disease1482 Words   |  6 PagesHIV/AIDS is a devastating disease that has predominated in Africa due to the long incubation period of the virus, poverty, sexual promiscuousness, urbanization, trading routes, lack of knowledge, medical advances (use of needles, blood transfusion), and gender inequalities. Although the government denied the existence of HIV/ AIDS for many years, they have begun working towards various solutions such as the ABC (Abstinence, Be faithful, and Condom use) method and United States initiatives like PEPFARRead MoreHealth Issues in Africa1611 Words   |  7 Pagespeople i sn’t as healthy as might be imagined. South Africa major health public concerns are HIV/AIDS, malaria, smoking related disease, and tuberculosis, just to name a few of them but all of which affect the non-white population more than the white; apart form these. HIV/AIDS in Africa The rise of sickness in Africa today is mainly caused by HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) is the virus that causes AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome). AIDS is the number one killer in African society today

Discuss How and Why Particular Research Methods Are Used...

Learning outcome: Discuss how and why particular research method are used at the biological level of analysis. The biological level of analysis in psychology refers to the study of how human behaviour, thoughts and emotions can be affected and affect the biological factors/ physiology of human body. Laboratory experiments, case studies and correlation studies are the three main research methods applied in supporting the principles of the biological of analysis in psychology. First, laboratory experiments. Laboratory experiments are research methods that help to establish cause-effect relationship between two variables. They are applied for developing the casual relationship of manipulated variables which help to increase psychological†¦show more content†¦This research shows that case study has high validity as it is appropriate to apply study results to intended population with high ecological validity. However, it has low reliability as it can be retested resulting low test-retest reliability. Different researcher might also have different observations under controlled environment on the participants behaviour resulting low inter-rater reliability. Third, correlation study. Correlation study is the record of the scores on two or more measures for establishing a relationship between them. The process of correlation study does not necessary involves in manipulating independent variables which might damage the participant. Correlation study is applied widely as it is important for developing the link between genetics and behaviour, especially in the context of studying the frequency of the second family member having a particular characteristic proven that his/her family has it. It also contributes widely on establishing the relationship between brain activity and behaviour or the relationship between cognition and emotion. Take note that no causation is established in this level of research method. Heston, 1966 is a research held through correlation study research method for the purpose of discovering the relationship between schizophrenia and genetic information transmitted from parents. During the research process, researcher focused on investigating theShow MoreRelatedPsychology: Research Methods in Cognitive Level of Analysis1141 Words   |  5 PagesResearch Methods in Cognitive Level of Analysis There are 3 research methods can be used in cognitive level of analysis. They are lab experiments, case studies of patients with brain-damage, and brain imaging techniques. The methods are basically the same methods used in biological level of analysis. These methods are useful depending how the researchers want to study the cognitive process. One of the most scientific ways to study mental processes is through lab experiments because the highRead MoreExplain how one principle of the biological level of analysis may be demonstrated in one empirical2600 Words   |  11 PagesExplain how one principle of the biological level of analysis may be demonstrated in one empirical study or theory Biological Level of Analysis (BLOA) deals with biological adaptations at a biological level. BLOA states that cognitions, emotions and behaviours have a physiological basis to all of them. There are 3 main principles that revolve and outline the BLOA. Foremost, Behaviour is innate, as it is genetically based, so it rational to conclude that behaviour is genetically influenced by evolutionRead MoreBiological Level of Analysis1788 Words   |  8 PagesOutline principles that define the biological level of analysis (for example, patterns of behavior can be inherited; animal research may inform our understanding of human behavior; cognitions, emotions and behaviors are products of the anatomy and physiology of our nervous and endocrine systems). Introduction: Two principles that define the biological level of analysis are that patterns of behavior can be inherited and that animal research may inform our understanding of human behavior. PatternsRead MoreFeminist Geography1667 Words   |  7 Pages socially created gender structure of society† (Ford Gregson, 1986) Feminist geographies have tended to address gender in relation to class relations, which whilst productive, ignored the question of racism entirely, serving to indicate how inherited paradigms obscure new insights into the methodologies of geographical thought. In order to adequately argue whether feminist geography is more about feminism or geography, it is important to delve a little deeper into the tenetsRead MoreThe Economic And Cultural Benefits Of Multigenerational Households1517 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction Background and Significance: The goal of this action research project is to contrast and compare the economic and cultural benefits of multigenerational households in the Midwest of USA since the economic downturn. This research will focus on multigenerational households of families attending the Southern Illinois University Edwardsville (SIUE) Belleville Head Start Center . The families at this particular Head Start are diverse, young parents with low income and other factors thatRead MoreFree Essay Is a Scam1711 Words   |  7 PagesIn a short paragraph, summarize the Levels of Explanation Approach. John Pokinghorne said I can perceive another person as an aggregation of atoms, an open biochemical system in interaction with the environment, a specimen of homo sapiens, an object of beauty, someone who needs deserve my respect and compassion, a brother for whom Christ died. Myers believes Christians must appreciate the essential role of science in nuturing curiosity and humility. This will put a wrongheaded notion about existenceRead MoreThe Open Problem Of The Computer Virus Problem2376 Words   |  10 Pagesfor which if we research and find solutions now will help us deal with unknown viruses in the future. In this research paper we are briefly going to discuss the open problems in computer virology and review some of the techniques used to solve these problems. Also, we will try to extend the already present solutions by researching on how we can improvise certain aspects of these solutions to generate more efficient virus recognition and detection techniques. The aim of this research paper is to encourageRead MoreTheories of Crime Causation Essay example1589 Words   |  7 Pagesin the society. The theories have been developed to have an in-depth understanding of the crime and how best they can be addressed to ensure that humans live in a conducive environment. These units and theories have been around and in use from as early as the twentieth century. Over the years, theorists and researchers have engaged their minds in trying to find answers and possibly cab the high level of crime that the world faces today (Siegel, 2010). Many of the theories developed give varying analyticalRead MoreINTRODUCTION CHAPTER 1 BY SAQUILAYAN2009 Words   |  9 PagesMACRO perspectives, though neither can be divorced from the other. MICROSOCIOLOGISTS †¢ Are those who concentrate on the details of particular interactions as they occur in everyday life. †¢ Microsociologists include studies of how divorced men and women disengage from significant social roles; of how conformity can influence the expression of prejudiced attitudes and how teacher’s expectations can affect a student’s academic performance. ( Schaefer, 2005) MACROSOCIOLOGISTS †¢ Are those concerned withRead MoreDiscuss the Relationships Between Social Theory and Empirical Research in Relation to One Published Study (Article 1)1886 Words   |  8 PagesDiscuss the relationships between social theory and empirical research in relation to one published study (ARTICLE 1) This essay will be examining the relationship between social theory and empirical research, in doing so we will be using the article written by D’Ovidio, R., Mitman, T. Et al. (2009). To do so we must firstly explain what is meant by sociological theory. Sociological theory is something that is tested and proven;it attempts to make sense of scientific data or empirical observations

Social Networkings Influence on Eating Disorders Essay

As many as 10 million woman and girls suffer from anorexia or bulimia in the United States (Steele). Anorexia and bulimia are very serious eating disorders. Many women and young girls feel that these disorders are the only way for them to be accepted by others. However the strive for acceptance only ends up causing pain, emotional harm, or death to those affected. Being a sufferer of anorexia, I know the emotional and physical damage this disease can cause. The root cause of having an eating disorder is still undetermined, yet some doctors and physiologist believe the new focus on a perfect body, shown by the media is to blame. Society’s portrayal and promotion of a thin body image as the ideal female body contributes to eating†¦show more content†¦As the fad of eating disorders continued, more people gained in support. Pro-eating disorder (pro-ED) emerged on the internet, saying that eating disorders are actually a lifestyle choice instead of a medical condition. Pro -anorexia (pro-ana) and pro-bulimia (pro-mia) Web sites, forums, clubs and chat groups were created to offer thinspiration in the form of dieting tips and images of severely thin models (Topping). People today are still suffering from anorexia and bulimia, afraid that if they gain any weight America will consider them to be obese. America’s obsession with the obesity epidemic scares many woman and girls in the U.S. into the belief that their body will never be good enough. Recently American leaders have been pressing the issue of obesity to children and adults across the country. First Lady Michelle Obama newly started â€Å"Let’s Move!† a program hoped to help youth in America become fit, healthy, and to decrease obesity (DeNoon). Doctors and psychologists feel that this new aim at being fit does more harm than good. â€Å"We live in a very weight obsessive society where the body size is getting larger, but what is considered the ideal body type (weight) isnâ €™t.† (Fields, ScD). Fields, a psychologist at a local Washington hospital says that the â€Å"Let’s Move!† plan is a great start to stopping the spread of obesity, but it falls short inShow MoreRelatedMedia’s Influence on Children and Adolescents Essay examples574 Words   |  3 Pagestelevision and social media, the present generation is â€Å"born† in it. By this statement, it is implied that children today are much closer to technology and media than adults are, and so, are more likely to be affected by it. Perhaps, the highest impact on the physical, cognitive, and social-emotional development of children and adolescents is by media due to its ready availability through Smart phones, tablet PCs and other portable devices. This paper attempts to evaluate some of the influences of mediaRead MoreThe Effects of Online Media on Adolescents1454 Words   |  6 Pagesmany negative uses as well. Unfortunately, it is all too easy for these negative effects to impede upon the perceptions of adolescents. Some countries have been trying to reduce this effect by expelling the inappropriate content of online media (Influence on Children Media...†). However, in the United States, children are thrown in the waves, expected to stay afloat in this massive sea, but many are being dragged under the surface by the nefarious temptations media creates. Content that is not appropriateRead MorePsychological Effects of Social Media3121 Words   |  13 PagesThe Daily Mail just ran a thought-provoking article about the effect that social websites have on childhood development. In short, eminent neuroscientist Susan Greenfield claims that social networking sites like Facebook and Twitter shorten attention spans and contribute to an instant gratification, self-centered mindset. From the article: We know how small babies need constant reassurance that they exist. My fear is that these technologies are infantilising the brain into the state of small children

Texting, Bad or Good Free Essays

When it comes to texting, people either love it, hate it, or just don’t even try because they may feel that they are â€Å"too old for that young people stuff†. Some people will promote it as one of the easiest ways to communicate or consider it a waste of time and murderous to the English language. I, for one, consider it a blessing and a curse. We will write a custom essay sample on Texting, Bad or Good or any similar topic only for you Order Now I can see both sides of the subject. I do agree that people shouldn’t text in some situations or places where it is considered rude, dangerous, or where it would take away from the human interaction that people need to mentally survive. Some may argue that with the rise of texting, it has hindered our grammar, the way we interact with others, and possibly our business relations. I used to be a cashier at a grocery store, and from a personal point of view, when the customers were on their cell phone, it made my job as a cashier rough to do. When that happens, the person isn’t paying attention because they are busy texting or talking to someone on their phone. It made the job difficult because you were trying to get their attention for a payment method and sometimes had to repeat yourself two or three times. Then, other customers waiting get impatient and look at you like you aren’t doing your job in a speedy fashion. On the other hand, texting can be great and beneficial in some situations. I’ve been in some situations where it was easier to send a text message. At my church I either play the piano or I’m in the sound booth doing the Media for service. From the sound booth to the platform, it’s at least one hundred feet or more. There have been occasions where people on the platform and sound booth needed to tell each other something about the sound or some other situation. It was easier and faster to send a text message to each other rather than trying to read facial expressions or hand signals. All in all, texting is what you make of it. There are some situations in which you need to have respect and not text, such as classrooms, church, and driving in your automobile for example. The thing to do is use common sense and think, â€Å"Is this safe? Is this respectful to others? If I were teaching, would I be okay with people’s attention being divided? † Most of all, we need to just use our brain and use moderation. We can survive without our phones. Our society survived for hundreds of years without mobile devices. I’m pretty sure we could too if we had to. How to cite Texting, Bad or Good, Essay examples

Leadership Perceptions of Effective Leadership

Question: Describe about the Leadership for a Perceptions of Effective Leadership. Answer: Leadership is an art, skill or quality that allows the leader to do the right thing that could help a company or any concern to achieve its goal. A leader can create an inspiring vision and motivates his subordinates or team members to work to visualize this vision (Northouse, 2015). He can consolidate a team and maximize the efficiency of the team. This essay will discuss various situation and people who use different style of leadership to get their work don effectively (Renko et al, 2015) A chief of a fundraising campaign should follow a participative leadership. A chief of a fundraising campaign needs to engage themselves in all the activities that are involved in a fundraising campaign. He needs to check the day-to-day operations, recruitment and management of the staff. He also needs to coordinate and implement the operations of the campaign. He needs to invest his resources in time and energy to create and manage the budget for the campaign. The major skills that make them successful are excellent organizational skills, balanced temperament, good communication skills and top of that leadership quality. The chief of the fundraising campaign must keep a check on the finance director, press secretary, field operation manager, campaign treasurer, the IT team, and other staff. He needs to make sure all the teams are working according to the plan and strategy (Wilson Thompson, 2014). There are situations when the chief of the fundraising campaign has to meet undesirable situations that might be adverse for the image of the campaign. In a situation when there are negative rumors about the campaign like mismanagement of the funds that were gathered in the previous fundraising campaign. Then investors might back out of the event, and the whole campaign might jeopardize. The chief has to gather his team quickly and chalk out a plan to combat the situation. He has pay heed to every team member so that he would be able to comprehend the perspective of every member. This exercise will enable him to formulate a concrete strategy to battle with this sticky situation. Hearing the opinion of at least one member from every department will enable him to understand the strength and weakness of the teams and formulate the plan accordingly. He can make sure that the IT team searches the people who have initiated the dissemination of the rumor on social media. The new media team will negate the rumors and pacify the masses on social media. Chief has to sit with the legal department to come up with the legal stance they can take against the people who have initiated the rumor (Kara et al., 2013). A participative leadership style will help the chief to make decisions by allowing his several departments to give inputs, get the clear picture of the situation, and come up with ideas to handle the situation. This style of leadership reflects that the chief beliefs in every member of his team and this, in turn, boost the morale of the team. The team gets motivated to work harder and give every idea that might be instrumental in solving the situation in a better way. The chief will be able to establish open communication among the team members and earn the faith of the team that will positively help the team to survive any storm that comes the way of the fundraising campaign (Cunningham, Salomone Wielgus, 2015) A prison officer should follow the autocratic style of leadership. This style of leadership will help the prison officer to make the decision alone without any interference by others. The responsibilities of a prison officer include many activities that need to be regulated with absolute authority. The supervision, management and the control of the prisoners that too lawfully, safely and securely comes under the duties of a prison officer. He needs to check the whether the staff is performing their responsibilities and duties properly. He needs to check the daily activities of the prisoners and review it on a timely basis. In short, he is responsible all the activities performed or happening with the prison premises (Bhatti et al., 2012). Prison officers often need to tackle various kinds of situation, which are tricky to handle. One such situation is to deal with the temperament of the notorious prisoners. Prison officer needs to ensure that the prisoners do not involve in activities like bullying, assaults, substance misuse and self-harm. They prison officer needs to handle these situations strictly and then report it to the higher authorities. He needs to review the incidents and the ones involved in the time-to-time basis. In such situations, the prison officer needs to firm in his decision and make sure that his decision is the last word for the staff and prisoners. All the staff and the prisoners have to follow the directives by the prison officer. Anyone not abiding by the directives provided by the prison officer should be reported, and strict actions should be taken against them (Kinnunen, Feldt Mauno, 2016). A prison officer should authoritatively maintain the discipline within the prison. He should assert his decisions on his staff and prisoners. The staff or the prisoner will not be able to influence him. The reason is that this will assert his authority, and everyone is going to listen to him without questioning. It is critical for his staff and prisoners to obey his command to maintain the discipline. His job is to control and maintain discipline in the prison. He does not need to motivate his prisoners. In fact, the prisoners should not take him lightly and for that purpose, the prison officer needs to maintain his authoritative leadership in the prison premises. The prison officer is not there to motivate the prisoners. He does not need to fear that by following this (Aktas, Gelfand Hanges, 2015) CEO of a multi-national company should follow the transformational leadership style. A CEO has to take all the important decision for the company. He is responsible for the future course of the company in all the countries the company is operating. The CEO is responsible for all the success and the failure of the company. He needs to formulate strategies along with his team. All the departments- from HR to finance to marketing and the others- comes under his jurisdiction. He needs to formulate plans that are going to affect all the departments positively and consequently maximize the efficiency of the employees and the company. He has to check whether the plans and strategies formulated are effective implemented. He is needed to check that the plans percolate to the bottom most level of the company. He needs to keep his subordinates motivated and optimistic about their work (Choudhary, Akhtar Zaheer, 2013). A CEO needs to keep calm and handle all the situations faced by the company and the employees. In times of adverse situation like the decline in sales in a particular country in which the company operates, CEO needs to identify the reasons for the situation. He needs to assess the situation and formulate strategies and plans accordingly. Finally, he needs to look after that the plans are implemented as planned. He needs to motivate his employees that this is just a phase that would pass. He needs to work on his marketing team conduct survey and research to know the roots of the situations (Garca-Morales, Jimnez-Barrionuevo Gutirrez-Gutirrez, 2012). A CEO should always communicate with his subordinate and try to figure out their problems, issues or opinions within the company. He needs to know all that is happening in the company to be able to understand the situation and current position of the company (Snaebjornsson Edvardsson, 2013). Only then, he will be able to find a solution to the problems that are prevalent in the company. He needs ti innovate ideas and give direction to his subordinates to be able to guide them to achieve the optimum output from them. He needs to work to increase the productivity and create the brand of the company. This will help him to meet his goals. If the CEO can win the confidence of his employees, he will be able to minimize employee turnover. He will be able to create a healthy working environment within the company. He needs to take new initiatives to for the company and use the resources of the company efficiently. This will yield the optimum results for the company (Liu et al., 2013). This essay can be concluded on the note that various situations call for various leadership styles. Every sphere in the professional fields requires a different type of leader. A chief of fundraising campaign has to follow participative leadership style to be able to handle various situations and work along with his teammates. However, a prison officer has to follow an autocracies approach of leadership, as he cannot allow the staff and the prisoners to influence him in any way. Meanwhile, a CEO of the multinational company has to follow a transformational leadership style. He needs to be innovative and keeps his subordinates motivated. Thus adopting a leadership style highly depends on the job and responsibility of the leadership. Reference List Aktas, M., Gelfand, M., Hanges, P. (2015). Cultural tightnesslooseness and perceptions of effective leadership.Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 0022022115606802. Bhatti, N., Maitlo, G. M., Shaikh, N., Hashmi, M. A., Shaikh, F. M. (2012). The impact of autocratic and democratic leadership style on job satisfaction.International Business Research,5(2), 192. Choudhary, A. I., Akhtar, S. A., Zaheer, A. (2013). Impact of transformational and servant leadership on organizational performance: A comparative analysis.Journal of Business Ethics,116(2), 433-440. Cunningham, J., Salomone, J., Wielgus, N. (2015). Project Management Leadership Style: A Team Member Perspective.International Journal of Global Business,8(2), 27. Garca-Morales, V. J., Jimnez-Barrionuevo, M. M., Gutirrez-Gutirrez, L. (2012). Transformational leadership influence on organizational performance through organizational learning and innovation.Journal of Business Research,65(7), 1040-1050. Kara, D., Uysal, M., Sirgy, M. J., Lee, G. (2013). The effects of leadership style on employee well-being in hospitality.International Journal of Hospitality Management,34, 9-18. Kinnunen, U., Feldt, T., Mauno, S. (2016). Authentic leadership and team climate: testing cross-lagged relationships.Journal of Managerial Psychology,31(2), 331-345. Liu, Z., Cai, Z., Li, J., Shi, S., Fang, Y. (2013). Leadership style and employee turnover intentions: a social identity perspective.Career Development International,18(3), 305-324. Northouse, P. G. (2015).Leadership: Theory and practice. Sage publications. Renko, M., El Tarabishy, A., Carsrud, A. L., Brnnback, M. (2015). Understanding and measuring entrepreneurial leadership style.Journal of Small Business Management,53(1), 54-74. Snaebjornsson, I. M., Edvardsson, I. R. (2013). Gender, nationality and leadership style: A literature review.International Journal of Business and Management,8(1), 89. Wilson, E. R., Thompson, L. (2014). An Examination of How Leadership Style Influences Team Performance through Conflict. InAcademy of Management Proceedings(Vol. 2014, No. 1, p. 11101). Academy of Management.

Identifying Hallmark of Cancer Biology with detailed †Free Samples

Question: Discuss about the Identifying Hallmark of Cancer Biology with detailed. Answer: Metastatic cancer is a type of cancer in which cancer cells transfer to different organs in contrast to the site where it was first formed. The other part of the body in which it forms the new tumor is called as metastatic tumors. Metastatic of cancer takes place in a complex system of heterogeneous cell population. One of the hallmarks of metastatic cancer is the invasion of cell from local areas to distance tissues. There are many other mechanism underlying development of metastatic cancer such as sustaining proliferative signaling, evading growth suppressors, overcoming immune destruction, tumor promoting inflammation, invasion, angiogenesis, mutation, resisting cell death and deregulation energetic (1). This essay gives more insight into each hallmark of cancer and its contribution to cancer development. Furthermore, the essay also discusses in more detail about the hallmarks of sustaining proliferative signaling and resisting cell death and the role of specific chemotherapy drug s targeting these hallmarks. Hallmarks of cancer development: The 10 hallmarks underlying metastatic cancer development and their role in metastatic dissemination are as follows: Sustaining proliferative signaling: The most fundamental mechanism for cancer cell development is their ability to proliferate constantly. Compared to normal cells, cancer cells deregulate the growth promoting signals resulting in unlimited growth as they are no more dependent on proliferation signals. Tumor cells acquire the property to sustain proliferative signaling by producing their own growth factors causing autocrine stimulation. The production of paracrine signal also enhances growth of normal cells. In addition, their reliance on growth factors are reduced by the constitutive activation of downstream signaling pathways (2). The downstream signaling pathway is activated by somatic mutations in the catalytic subunit of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3-kinase) (3). This indicates the mechanism by which cancerous cell grow and develop. Evading growth suppressors- Evading growth suppressors is that hallmarks of cancer cells that complements the process of sustaining proliferative signaling. The ability to evade growth suppression is a necessary process to sustain growth signal as this mechanism acts to prevent all those pathways that negatively influence cell proliferation. TP53 and RB are some tumor suppressive protein coding gene involves in inhibiting cell growth and mutation or deletion of these genes results in the developments of cancerous tumors in patient (3). Another mechanism by which cancer cells inhibits the function of tumor suppressor genes includes interaction of the ncRNA fragments with tumor suppressor proteins. This results in release of high levels of PSF-binding RNAs from tumor cell line (4). Hence, role of ncRNAs in evading growth suppressors gives clear insight into mechanism behind cancer development. Avoiding immune destruction: Immune evasion or avoiding immune destruction is also one of the hallmarks of cancer development. This process also acts as a major barrier in designing anti-cancer therapeutic strategies. The evasion of immune attack occurs by creating an immune suppressive environment by means of tumor variants resistant to immune effectors. Cytotoxic T cells and CD4+ and T helper cells produce interferon and cytotoxin to inhibit the development of cancer cells, however the process of chronic inflammation counteracts immune response and promotes cancer development. The tumor cells also exploit regulatory T cells (Tregs), defective antigen presentation and immune suppressive mediators and apaptosis mechanism to evade immune response. In the case of cancer metastasis also, the mechanism of detaching from primary tumor and travelling through the surroundings tissues occurs by avoiding immune destruction (5). Enabling replicative immortality: Enabling replicative immortality is the third trait of cancer which indicates the potential of cancer cells towards unlimited replication. Normal cells cannot pass through large number of cell division cycles; however tumor cells possess the potential to unlimited replication. Tumor cells possess unlimited replication potential by way of circumventing the loss of telomeres that determines the number of cell division cycles. Tumor cells are able to control the loss of telomeres by the expression of telomerase enzyme and the activation of telomere tandem lengthening pathway. Long ncRNAs also plays a role in replicative immortality as it acts as the regulator of genome stability and replication (3). Tumor promoting inflammation: In the process of cancer development, it has been found that the negative effect of the immune system results in cancer development. The presence of white blood cells in tumor cells gives indication of the relation between inflammation and cancer development. The complex interplay between immunity and inflammation causes the development of cancer cells. Tumor promoting inflammation (TAM) and anti-tumor immunity regulates the pathway for formation of tumor. Tumor associated macrophases also provides the environment for tumor growth, invasion and metastasis (6). From this evidence, it can be said that TAM cells plays a major role in tumor promoting inflammation and cancer development. This knowledge can be effectively utilized to design cancer treatment options. Activating invasion and metastasis: Another mechanism that is regarded as a hallmark of cancer includes their ability to invade and form distant metastases. The step towards invasion and metastatis initiates when morphological changes occur in cancer cells. The invasion-metastasis reaction occurs when cancer cells are able to escape immune surveillance and move from primary regions to target tissues to form micromestastases. The expression of E-cadherin, a cell-to-cell adhesion molecule is also one of the important factor of the invasion-metastasis cascade. In contrast to down regulation of E-cadherin in human carcinomas, N-Cadherin is upregulated in invasive tumors (7). Inducing angiogenesis: Inducing angiogenesis is also a trait found in cancer cells. The main advantage of this trait is that the process of angiogenesis prevents the natural diffusion limit of oxygen and nutrients. The process of angiogenesis is necessary for wound healing and tumor progression turns on the angiogenic switch thus helping to sustain tumor growth. The mechanism behind angiogenesis includes binding of the angiogenic regulators to receptors on the endothelial cells (8). Certain evidence has also given indication about the role of ncRNAs in facilitating the angiogenic process (3). Genome instability and mutation: Genome instability is also one of the properties of cancer cell. Genome instability is the increased likelihood of genomic alterations during cell division. Genome stability is necessary for cellular integrity, however the opposite process of genome instability leads to the progression and development of tumor. The presence of genetic unstability factor in cancer cells results in a shorter cell cycle and evasion of immunological control mechanism. This provides cancer cells the advantage of proliferation and transforming into a malignant cell. The process of genetic instability is associated with structural changes like variations in base pair mutation and function of microsatellite. There various contrasting evidence regarding the mechanism underlying genetic instability. One hypothesis is that occurs by the loss of gene function (9). More research in this area may help to identify chemotherapeutic drugs that target this hallmark. Resisting cell death: Another established hallmark of cancer development is the ability of cancer cells to resist cell death. Three mechanisms contribute to cell death. Firstly, the mechanism of apoptosis leads to controlled cell death. This occurs because the cancer cells lose the ability to show mutation and activates the expression of anti-apoptotic regulators like Bcl-2. TP53 induces apoptosis. Autophagy is the second mechanism attributing to cell death. The property of cells to break down their organelles provides many beneficial effects to cancer cells (10). Necrosis is the third mechanism contributing to cell death. Necrosis is a phenomenon in which necrotic cells releases their content into the local tissue microenvironment. By this process, it releases many pro-inflammatory signals into the surrounding tissue. The necrotic cells act as the source that facilitates the process of angiogenesis, proliferation and invasion in cancer cells. PCGEM1 is regarded as the ncRNA that pla ys a role in anti-apoptotic functions (3) (Refer-Figure 1). Deregulating cellular energetic: Deregulating cellular energetics is also one of the attributes of cancer cells. Normal cells produce energy the process of glycolysis, whereas the malignant cells increase their source of energy by the upregulation of glycolysis. This phenomenon of increases utilization of glucose is known as the Warburg effect. Hence. The continuous activation of gylcolysis in cancer cells leads to activation of oncogenes and progression of cancer. The tumor suppressor genes and the mutated oncogenes plays a major role in deregulating cellular energetic. Normal cells have several signaling networks that activates metabolic pathways for cell reproduction. However, many byproducts produced during aerobic metabolism such as reactive oxygen species result in DNA mutation and cell damage. This change in cell metabolism is the factor resulting in tumorigenesis. The mutations in the tumor suppressor genes and oncogenes change many signally pathways thus triggering the proce ss of tumor development (11). Hence, from the above evidence, it can be said that the Warburg effect is the mechanism that results in metabolism of tumor. Cancer cells finds glycolysis as a source of energy. Hence, it can be said that there is direct relations between tumor malignancy and glycolytic ATP production. By understanding this phenomenon behind cancer cell development and the dependence of cancer cells on glucose utilization, many therapeutic interventions can be designed. Sustaining Proliferative Signalling One of the major hallmarks of cancer is sustaining proliferative signalling (13). One of the major characteristic of cancer cells is their ability to proliferate at a constant rate even in the absence stimuli coming from the external growth factors (13). Normal cells strictly manipulate the production of the growth initiating and inhibiting factors in order to ensure a tight control of the tissues and cell number, integrity of the tissue and architecture. However, tumour cell physiology is completely different from the normal cell lines. They showcase deregulated signalling cascades that promote them to be more or less free from the effect of the signals of proliferation which results in the unlimited cycles of proliferation. In order to attain this immortal capability, the tumours cells attain the capability of sustain proliferative signalling. This power of sustaining proliferative signalling is acquired by the tumour cells in different ways for example they generate their own grow th factors and their complementary receptor molecules thereby resulting in the process of autocrine stimulation (14). Other pathways which are undertaken by the tumour cells in order to attain sustaining proliferative signalling include paracrine signalling which help in the production of numerous growth factors that support the development of cancer cells. The growth factor receptors are also constantly expressed in the tumour cells and this help in sustained proliferation via continuous binding of the growth factors with its receptors on the tumour. In extreme cases, the cancer cells become totally independent from the effect of the exogenous growth factors because of constitutive activation of the downstream signalling pathways or other disruption of negative-feedback mechanism (14). In order target the cancerous cell in the ground of sustained proliferative signalling, PI3K/Akt pathway is being targeted by the chemotherapeutic drugs. This is because, PI3L/Akt signalling pathways plays an important role not only towards the growth of tumour but also act as a potential response of tumours towards anti-cancer treatment (15). Acquired resistance towards treatment with chemotherapy, radiation and targeted therapy. Cisplatin, a chemotherapeutic drug, induces the activation of Akt pathway and thereby promoting cell death. Active Akt has been found to be present in numerous cisplatin-selected chemo-resistant lung, ovarian and glioma cancer lies in comparison with the sensitive parental counterparts. Combined treatment done under the application of Ly294002, a PI3k inhibitor not only helps in the attenuation of cisplatin induced Akt activity, but also increases cisplatin induced cytotoxicity and this indicates that the process of Akt activation is caused under the effect of upregulation of PI3K and this makes cancer cell lines more resistant towards cisplatin. Numerous mechanisms have been have been proposed in order to mediate the cisplatin-induced PI3K/Akt activation (15) (Refer: Figure 2). The cisplatin-resistant NSCLC a549 cells on stepwise exposure of increased concentration of cisplatin has been found to increase Akt1 activity via increasing the protein level and increased gene expression in comparison to that of the parental cells. On the other hand, the levels of pAkt signals in the lung cancer tumour are inversely proportional towards the cisplatin sensitivity towards the primary cultured cancer cell lines of the lung from identical tumour tissues. The Cisplatin-induced Akt activation is dependent on the EGFR activity which lies upstream of PI3K. Cisplatin-induced phosphorylation of EGFR is associated with EGFR internalization along with ATM and ATR-dependent activation of p38 and this occurs as a result of cisplatin-induced DNA damage. This activated p38 causes the internalization of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Internalized EGFR causes downstream phosphorylation of the tyrosine residues and thereby active further downstream tumour suppressor protein p85. This p85 is another important component of PI3K and thus help in the prevention of sustained signalling and thereby promoting cell death (16). Another chemotherapeutic drug that is found to prevent sustained signalling in cancerous cell line is Etoposide. Etoposide is a podophyllotoxin which is kown to casr peliotropic actions within the cells including inhibition of the action of topoisomerase II, production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and subsequent induction of DNA damage. This DNa damage actives PIK3-Akt kinase signalling pathway which in turn found to cast an effective impact towards the treatment of gastric cancer (17)(18). Resisting Cell Death The aim of immortality for the cancer cells can be easily achieved if the cancerous cell acquires the hallmark of resting cell death. There are three important pathways that promotes cell death and careful regulation of three of these pathways help in the achievement of the immortality of the cancerous cell. The first mechanisms that promote towards controlled cell death include apoptosis. The process of apoptosis is initiated via numerous external and internal stimuli and numerous studies have highlighted that cancerous cell which are malignant in nature can attenuate the process of apoptosis and thereby becoming resistant towards cell death. In normal cell, the induction of DNA damage is one of the main markers towards the initiation of apoptosis. DNA damage, promotes the expression of the pro-apoptotic proteins Noxa and Puma (upregulated modulator p53, apoptotic gene) causing cell death. However, more than 50% of all human cancers have lost the signalling pathways mediated by p53 gene or p53 gene remain mutated and this lead to termination of the process of apoptosis even during the cell damage. Alternatively the tumours represents show an increased level of expression of numerous survival factors or other anti-apoptotic regulators like Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL. This can be regarded as one of the second important mechanism that repress controlled cell death or autophage. The cellular mechanism of autophagy operates at low levels within the cell line. However, it can be alternatively activated via numerous kind of cellular stress factors like nutrient deficiency. Autophagy is considered as a cell-recycling program that enables the cell to break down into their organelles and then to employ the degradation of the products towards the process of fuel biosynthesis pathways or for re-usual for subsequent energy production within the body. However, autophagy can act both as strength and weakness of cancerous cell. This weakness comes in the form of blocking the pathway fo r carcinogenesis. The last mode of cell death that is negatively impaired in cancer cell line is necrosis. Necrosis is defined as a process of un-controlled cell-death that occurs mostly with the damaged or injured cell lines. Similar to that of autophagy, necrosis can also serve to be beneficial as well as harmful for the cancerous cell lines. In the beneficial grounds, the negative regulation of necrosis in cancer cell lead to the uncontrolled cell proliferation and the other hand, necrotic cell lines have also found to attract the proinflammatory cell mediators causing death of the cancer cells (14). In order to induce apoptosis in cancerous cell, the chemotherapeutic drugs like the cisplatimum or etoposide triggers apoptosis via the activation of TP53 pathways (2). Alterative research has showed that over-expression of the anti-apoptotic protein from the Bcl-2 family like Bcl-2, Bcl-xl is found to contribute chemotherapeutic resistance in cancers cell. One of the strategy that is used to destroy this anti-apoptotic protein include application of interfering oligonucleotide that downregulate the expression of the Bcl2 family of proteins. Controlled expression of Bax protein or application of BH-3 peptide has been found to abrogate protection againt the antiapoptotic protein in cancerous cell. One agent that is present gaining importance in the clinical trials is oblimersen. It is a nuclease-resistant antisense oligonucleaotide that targets Bcl2 mRNA. However, Oblimersen is still in Phase II and II clinical trials and is used to treat a wide range of adult and childhood tumours (1 9) (20). Oblimersen is still not approved for the treatment of melanoma this is because the results published from the phase III trials failed to show any extended survivals of the patients. On the other hand, oblimersen has been shown to produce favourable outcome when it is combined and injected along with docetaxel in the patients who are suffering from hormone-refractory prostate cancer (19)(20). Another drug that is used to induce aopotosis is 5-Fluorouracil (5-FU). It is mainly used for the treatment of colorectal and breast cancer. 5-FU mainly targets p53 mediated cell apoptosis. However, one of the major disadvantage of 5-FU is, it becomes non-functional among the p53 independent cells (21). 5-FU is an uracil analogue. It has fluorine atom located at the C5 position of the pyrimidine ring. Once 5-FU is transmitted inside the cell, it gets converted into active metabolites like, fluorodeoxyuridine triphosphate (FdUTP), fluorodeoxyuridine monophosphate (FdUMP) and fluorouridine triphosphate (FUTP). These metabolites promotes global RNA metabolism via incorporating FUMP ribonucleotide into RNA as well as DNA. This incorporation either ocuurs directly or occurs via thymidylate synthase (TS) inhibition leading to a wide range of abnormal biological effects which trigger controlled cell death or apoptosis (21). Thus from the above discussion, it can be concluded that the concept of hallmarks of cancer is a powerful guide in the domain of translational research which is aimed at improving and developing early detection process of cancer, effective screening and thereby improving the quality of life of the cancer patients. However, the use of the chemotherapeutic agents can impose several threats to the normal cell line due to non-specific target. Recent researchers are targeting ncRNA (Non-coding RNA) as an effective means of treating cancer. ncRNA has several advantage over the chemotherapeutic drugs and this are regarded as novel diagnostic and prognostic markers. Reference: Zhang W, Kai K, Ueno NT, Qin L. A brief review of the biophysical hallmarks of metastatic cancer cells. Cancer hallmarks. 2013 Aug 1;1(2-3):59-66. Gutschner, T. and Diederichs, S., 2012. The hallmarks of cancer: a long non-coding RNA point of view.RNA biology,9(6), pp.703-719. 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